Review
In this book Don Baker investigates the diversity of new religions on the Korean peninsula. The first new religion, Ch’ŏndogyo, began as Donghak (‘Eastern Learning’) in 1860. There are aspects of local traditional religions in Korean NRMs (animism, mountain worship, shamanism). Korea also has been strongly influenced for 1500 years by Confucianism and Buddhism, both literate traditions which became indigenized. Roman Catholic Christianity entered the peninsula in the late eighteenth century, and Protestantism arrived in 1884. Protestantism used the Korean language and introduced the term Hananim (One God) or Hanŭnim (Lord of Heaven) to refer to the monotheistic god. In defining new religions, Baker foregrounds those of recent origin. Ch’oe Cheu (1824–1864) received revelations from Sangje (the Lord on High), and his movement Donghak was in opposition to Sŏhak (Western Learning) or Christianity. He taught that kaebyŏk (Great Transformation) would renew the universe, which had declining levels of ki. Ch’ŏndogyo is Confucian in morality and outlook.
The next NRM examined is Won Buddhism, which Baker positions as the most “respected” (p. 16) of Korea’s newer faiths. Pak Chungbin (1891–1943), known as Sotaesan, received a revelation in 1916. He engaged in social relief (helping farmers financially and reclaiming land from the sea) and founded the Society for the Study of Buddha-Dharma in 1924. Won Buddhism is innovative; no statues of Buddha or bodhisattvas are venerated. Rather, the key symbol is the empty circle, ilwŏn. Won Buddhism also teaches kaebyŏk and Sotaesan proposed that adherents should work to improve the world rather than detach from it. Won Buddhism self-identifies as Buddhist but claims to be an entirely new manifestation of the religion.
Baker notes that Confucianism is a big part of the Korean NRM scene. He examines Kim Hang (1826–1884), also known as Ilbu, who reinterpreted the eight trigrams of the I Ching (among other Confucian concepts and practices), and inspired three neo-Confucian groups (the Religion of Singing Songs and Stomping Feet, the Rectified Confucian Way – Kaengjŏngyudo - and Sŏngdŏkto). Kaengjŏngyudo members seek to live a traditional Confucian life, including donning Chosŏn costume and living in community, while Sŏngdŏkto (the Way of Sagely Virtue), is primarily concerned to demonstrate the compatibility of Confucianism with modern culture. Chapter 5, “Christianity and New Religions” opens with the observation that Catholicism has generated no new religions, whereas Protestantism has fewer doctrinal controls and is therefore more facilitative of NRMs. The Unification Church is the best-known Korean NRM, and the religious career of Moon Sun Myung (1920–2012) is explained in some detail. Baker clearly explains the Christian context of Moon’s teachings, while making clear to the reader how they differ from mainstream churches and theology.
Other Christian groups – the Olive Tree Movement, the Church of the Heavenly Father, and Shincheonji – are discussed. Then Baker turns his attention to Daesoon Jinrohoe, founded by Kang Jeungsan (1871–1909), who is recognized as the supreme god, Sangje, by his followers. Kang, who met Kim Ilbu, taught kaebyŏk from 1901, arguing that the Great Transformation “must begin with the elimination of grievances” (p. 41). Other religions stemming from Kang include JeungSanDo and Taejonggyo, which worships the culture hero and legendary founder of Korea, Tan’gun.
Chapter 7, “Religions and the State,” considers how religions are considered in present-day North and South Korea. The Japanese occupation (1910–1945) mandated very few religions; only Christianity, Buddhism, and Shinto were licensed. Religious freedom came to South Korea when Japan lost the Pacific War. The next chapter considers the place of Juche (“self-reliance”), associated with the veneration of the ruling Kim family, in North Korea. Marriage is commemorated by visiting a statue of Kim Il Sung, and veneration of dead ancestors is also commemorated by making offerings to statues of Kim Il Sung. Baker’s “Conclusion” notes that South Korea does not have a dominant religious community, and that several Korean NRMs are not theistic. He observes that these phenomena are located in the wider modern world, but have distinctive local Korean characteristics. This is an attractive and interesting short book, which is enthusiastically recommended to readers.