Introduction

When a country is in the development stage, environmental regulations are weak or nonexistent, and pollution-intensive industries grow rapidly. As a country’s income rises to the middle level, demands for environmental policy formulation and environmental protection begin to emerge to some extent (Dasgupta et al., 2001). Since the 1960s, South Korea has focused on fostering industries, such as oil refining, fertilizers, and integrated steelworks, to build a national industrial base and develop underdeveloped areas (Ryu et al., 2018). By concentrating on development with the goals of rationality and efficiency, the country succeeded in entering the ranks of advanced nations, but various problems arose because of indiscriminate development (Kim et al., 2014).

Ecological issues can be defined as phenomena that occur widely on Earth, such as pollution, resource depletion, population growth, and destruction of wildlife and habitats caused by human actions (Koo, 2004). Human, industrial, and other activities inevitably impact the environment and sometimes cause environmental damage (Bergkamp, 2001). Science, as a means to address these problems, identifies environmental status, and policymakers can use the results to propose positivist policies. However, owing to the inherent complexity of science, it is difficult for the general public to understand (Keeley & Scoones, 1999). Therefore, to assist users and policymakers, it is necessary to present simple algorithms and analytical models that ensure the availability of digital data, the simplicity and feasibility of the planning process, and transparency in discussions during future utilization stages (Larondelle & Haase, 2012). Various environmental maps have been created and utilized for policy decision-making. Representative examples include Japan’s Natural Vegetation Map, Germany’s Biotope Map, and Austria’s hemeroby index. Japan’s Natural Vegetation Natural Map evaluates the vegetation in five stages. Germany’s Biotope Map is assessed in five stages, including individual, spatial, and correlational factors. Austria’s hemeroby index is divided into nine stages and used for policy purposes.

In South Korea, Article 34 of the Natural Environment Conservation Act stipulates the preparation and utilization of the Ecological and Natural Map (ENM) and Article 34-2 that of the Urban Ecological Map (UEM) to be used in the establishment or implementation of land use and development plans (Korea Legislation Research Institute, 2024). The ENM is created with Grades 1, 2, and 3 based on the ecological value, naturalness, and landscape value of natural environments such as mountains, rivers, inland wetlands, lakes, farmland, and cities, making it easy for anyone to understand. The UEM, as a supplementary provision of the same article, refers to a ‘detailed ENM’ created with Grades 1 to 5 for municipalities at the level of cities or above (Korea Legislation Research Institute, 2024). The ENM was legislated in 1998, with preparation guidelines first established as administrative rules in 2000 and the initial announcement of 794 map sheets at a 1:25,000 scale in 2007. It was later expanded to 800 map sheets, and the nationwide ENM was updated in three phases (NIE, 2024). The UEM was legislated in 2018, making preparation mandatory for 84 municipalities at the level of cities or above, with 83 municipalities having completed preparation by 2025.

These maps provide environmental spatial information based on the same law and share various commonalities; however, there are clear differences in the preparation systems, purposes, application areas, and policy linkages (Hwang et al., 2022). However, because maps have similar preparation purposes and provide spatial information of ecosystems, they are often perceived as the same map.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare and analyze the similarities and differences between the two maps, which are important tools in environmental policy, and to suggest improvements. Furthermore, it aimed to enhance the utilization of both maps and strengthen the efficiency of the system to enhance their importance in national environmental policies.

Materials and Methods

This study analyzed the ENM and UEM, which are used as key basic data in South Korea’s environmental policies (Fig. 1). Using content analysis, a comparative examination of the definitions, legal foundations, responsible institutions, scope of preparation, and utilization strategies of ENM and UEM was conducted through a direct analysis of the relevant provisions within the applicable legal frameworks. In addition, a comparative analysis of the administrative regulations governing ENM and UEM was conducted to examine the specific methodologies used in their preparation and the foundational data used in the process. The laws and guidelines used in the analysis were the currently enforced Natural Environment Conservation Act (Act No. 20231, effective 2025.8.7.), Ministry of Environment Directive No. 753 (2024.9.11) “Guidelines for Preparing the ENM,” and Ministry of Environment Notification No. 2024-251 (2024.12.5) “Guidelines for Preparing the UEM” (Korea Law Information Center, 2024a; 2024b; Korea Legislation Research Institute, 2024) (Table 1).

Results

As described above, the purpose of preparing the ENM and the UEM was the same, but there are differences in their utilization methods and scope of application. This section comparatively analyzes the differences between the two maps (Table 2).

The first difference relates to the preparation method. The ENM was prepared by the central government (Ministry of Environment), based on the results of natural environment and detailed ecosystem surveys conducted in accordance with Articles 30 and 31 of the Natural Environment Conservation Act (Korea Legislation Research Institute, 2024). The surveys covered vegetation, flora, birds, insects, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, large benthic invertebrates, freshwater fish, and terrain. The structure of the map is similar to that of a nationwide natural environment survey. The nationwide natural environment survey divided the entire national territory into 824 map sheets based on a 1:25,000 scale topographic map. The entire territory is divided into three large regions, which are further subdivided into five medium-sized regions one of which is surveyed each year, completing a nationwide survey every five years. However, since 2019, vegetation surveys have been conducted based on 1:5,000 scale topographic maps. The ENM, which reflects the results of natural environment surveys, also incorporates data at the same scale and cycle (Fig. 2A). The survey results are compiled into four thematic maps: vegetation, endangered wild species, wetlands, and terrain. The ratings are evaluated by overlaying land cover maps and digital maps. The completed ENM is made available for public viewing for 45 days every February to incorporate public opinion, and after the period ends, the publication is officially announced by the Ministry of Environment (Korea Law Information Center, 2024a).

The UEM is prepared by local governments at the level of cities or above, with the head of the local government serving as the responsible party. Unlike the ENM, the UEM is created in a biotope (habitat) unit. The basic thematic maps used for preparation include land use status maps and land cover maps prepared by the Ministry of Environment, and terrain thematic maps (such as slope analysis maps, elevation analysis maps, and aspect analysis maps) prepared by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport. Field surveys are conducted to create thematic maps of the vegetation, fauna, and flora. Depending on the characteristics and requirements of the local government, additional thematic maps, such as watershed distribution maps and CO₂ absorption analysis maps, can be incorporated for future use. The combined thematic maps, ‘Biotope Type Map’ and ‘Biotope Evaluation Map,’ are defined as the UEM (Korea Law Information Center, 2024b). As the UEM requires detailed spatial data for private property, public land, and small-scale development planning, a 1:5,000 scale is used as the standard (Fig. 2B).

The second difference relates to the data used to create maps. There are differences in the expression methods depending on the data utilized for each map. The ENM is created based on the results of 15 ecosystem survey projects conducted in accordance with Articles 30 and 31 of the Natural Environment Conservation Act. The main evaluation system is centered on species and habitat. Areas where endangered wild species appear are weighed by habitat, excluding simple occurrence cases. Thematic vegetation and terrain maps are created to reflect the results of the evaluations based on the habitat conservation grades. The vegetation and terrain conservation grade evaluations are managed and regulated by the administrative rules of the Ministry of Environment to ensure objectivity and credibility.

However, the UEM has a biotope-centered evaluation system. Biotopes are classified based on land-use units, and flora and fauna survey results. Although the map is created by local governments, biotope types are classified according to a table that divides the entire country into large, medium, and small systems, considering their use at the metropolitan level. The type table is managed and regulated by the administrative rules of the Ministry of Environment. However, to reflect the unique biotope types specific to some local governments (such as gotjawal or columnar joints), other types may be added.

The third difference relates to how the maps are reviewed. After completing the survey, each natural environment survey undergoes a data verification process conducted independently by an executing agency. The verified data is reflected in the ENM to draft the initial version, and the validity of the creation and grading is reviewed twice by experts in related fields. The final ENM undergoes a public surveying performance review by the Spatial Information Quality Management Institute to check its consistency and integrity as a digital map in accordance with Article 18 of the Spatial Information Management Act. Thus, the ENM undergoes a review process that is divided into data, grading, and precision to ensure accurate creation and credibility. After creation, the UEM is reviewed for data and grading validity by a local government review committee. Before submission to the Ministry of Environment, data consistency is reviewed by the National Institute of Ecology, and the final output is compiled.

The fourth difference relates to the classification of grades. The ENM is created using a three-grade system (Table 3). If any one of the four evaluation themes correspond to a first-grade reason, the area is evaluated as first-grade using the minimum indicator method. For example, if the vegetation is first grade, the area is evaluated as first grade, even if the endangered wild animals, wetlands, or terrain theme maps are not first grade. However, if the area includes ecosystems with artificial modifications, such as residential areas, rice paddies, fields, or bare land, the area is excluded from the first grade. The same applies to second grade. If any one of the four theme maps corresponds to second grade, the area is evaluated as second grade. The third grade is designated for areas other than those classified as first or second grade (NIE, 2025).

The UEM is classified into five grades, from Grade 1 to Grade 5, in order of excellence (Table 4). After overlapping the biotope and thematic maps for evaluation, the derived biotope health is used to assign grades. Biotopes are categorized into urban, rural, and natural biotope focus areas and are evaluated based on habitat function, topographical characteristics, potential for biological habitation, area and rarity, restoration capability, and ecological functionality. The evaluation utilizes the results obtained from the decision trees and value-aggregation matrices.

The fifth difference relates to the utilization criteria by grade. The ENM has utilization criteria by grade, as stipulated by the law. Grade 1 represents conservation, Grade 2 represents minimizing damage, and Grade 3 represents systematic development (Korea Legislation Research Institute, 2024). The UEM provides standards for map utilization fields through administrative rules; however, utilization criteria by grade are not established separately (Table 5).

The sixth difference relates to the announcement status. Once the ENM is completed and evaluated, it is made available for public viewing at the end of February every year and thereafter announced in the Republic of Korea’s Official Gazette (gwanbo.go.kr). The announced ENM has a legal effect and is used as official data for various development plan formulations and environmental impact assessments. In contrast, although some local governments determine the usage methods for UEM, its use is not determined through local government announcements.

Discussion

Conclusion

This study compared the institutional operation, preparation methods, grade classification, and utilization systems of the ENM and UEM and proposed improvements for the arising issues. In a situation where no prior research exists on how maps with the same purpose are prepared and what differences exist, the priority is to assist policymakers and users in their understanding. Consequently, differences were identified in map preparers, preparation scope, basic scale, and utilization data. Moreover, improvements such as precision enhancement, legal revision for credibility assurance, and clarification of utilization methods were proposed.

Environmental policy is directly connected to the lives of people, and therefore must be composed and implemented very precisely. The improvements suggested in this study can serve as important reference materials for enhancing the system completeness. However, as the significance of this study lies in being the first comparative analysis of the two maps, focusing largely on preparation and utilization, limitations in the additional legal analysis were identified. Future research should include legal analyses to enable the application and utilization of environmental policies from multiple perspectives.